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Table 1 Mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of chloroquine in multiple test systems

From: Mutagenic, Genotoxic and Immunomodulatory effects of Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine: a review to evaluate its potential to use as a prophylactic drug against COVID-19

Test system

Dose Used

Endpoints

Effects

References

Bacterial strains

Escherichia coli

1 X 10− 3 M

DR

+

[19]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1537

100 and 250 μg/ml

MU

+

[20]

Escherichia coli B/r

50 μg/ml

MU

+

[21]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1537

10–10,000 μg/plate

MU

+

[22]

(Salmonella typhimurium TA1537, TA1538, TA98 and TA100

5–5000 μg/plate

MU

[23]

Escherichia coli

300–500 μg/ml

DR

+

[24]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1537 and TA97a

312–500 μg/plate

MU

_

[25]

Drosophila melanogaster

3–10 mM

SRL

+

[26]

Salmonella typhimurium TA100, TA1537, TA1538

5–10 μg/plate

MU

+

[27]

Salmonella typhimurium TA97 Escherichia coli EE97 and EE102

25–200 μg/ml

MU

+

[28]

Salmonella typhimurium, TA102 E. coli strains WP2, WP2hcr, WP6 and WP67

25–200 μg/ml

MU

[28]

Salmonella typhimurium TA97 Escherichia coli DG1669

25–500 μg/plate

MU

+

[29]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1537, TA1538, TA98 and TA100

100–600 μg/ml

MU

+

[30]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1977, TA1978

100–600 μg/ml

MU

[30]

Salmonella typhimurium TA97a and TA100, TA104

0.1–10,000 μg/plate

MU

±

[14]

Salmonella typhimurium TA98

192.5–6160 μg/plate

MU

±

[31]

Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA97, TA1537

0–10,000 μg/plate;

250 μg/plate; 200 μg/ml

MU

+

[32]

Salmonella typhimurium TA1535, TA1977, TA102, TA104

10,000 μg/plate; 600 μg/plate

5000 μg/plate

MU

[32]

Salmonella typhimurium TA100

10–5000 μg/plate

MU

±

[33]

In vitro studies on mammalian systems

 Rat liver cells

0.2 mM

DR

+

[34]

 Human lymphocytes

15–100 μg/ml

CA

+

[35]

 Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells

5–100 μM

MN

SCE

+

+

[36]

 Chinese hamster lung fibroblast (V79) & Rat hepatocyte cells (H4)

0.001–10 μg/ml

SCE

+

[27]

 Chinese hamster lung fibroblast V79 cells

1–340 μM

MN

+

[37]

 Rat liver cells

Full text not available

DD

+

[38]

 Rat liver cells

0–1000 μM

DD

+

[39]

In vivo studies in multiple test systems

 Rheumatoid patients

250 mg/day for 6 years

CA

+

[40]

 Patients with aplastic anemia

Data not available.

Patients took CQ for several months

COa

+

[41]

 Mouse bone marrow cells

12.5–100 mg/kg in single i.p. dose

CA

SCE

+

+

[14]

 Wistar rats

20 mg/kg orally thrice a week continued up to 400 days.

COb

+

[42]

 Mouse bone marrow cells

10–30 mg/kg in single i.p. dose and one sub acute i.p.dose 10 mg daily for 3 days.

MN

CA

+

+

[43]

 Egyptian Toad Bufo

Toads weighing 50 g gavaged 0.5 mg and after 6 h 0.1 mg and then 0.1 mg daily for 3 days

CO

+

[44]

 Male Wistar rats

10 mg/kg i.p. for once a day for 7, 14 and 21 days

DD

+

[45]

  1. +: Positive effect, ±: Weakly positive effect, −: Negative (non mutagenic) effect,
  2. MU: Mutagenicity assay, CA: Chromosomal aberrations, SCE: Sister-Chromatid Exchange,
  3. SRL: Sex linked recessive lethals. DD: DNA Damage, DR: Inhibition of DNA Repair,
  4. MN: Micronuclei formation, CO: Carcinogenicity (Lymphosarcomas),
  5. COa: Carcinogenicity (Myeloblastic leukaemia), COb: Co-Carcinogenic effects